Afghanistan is ranked as one of the
poorest countries in the world with a weak state that is barely able to govern effectively
especially in the face of frequent resurges of violence by rebels (UNDP, 2011a).
It is estimated that over 36% of the 29 million population of Afghanistan live below
the poverty line with most of them unable to have stable access to food, water
and other basic amenities (Higgins and Prowse, 2010). Historical developments
that have culminated in the current situation are as follows. Power struggles
that were triggered by the 1973 revolt saw a sharp reversal of much of the
progress already made as far as economic development is concerned. Having
enjoyed a period of relative calm and development, a 1973 coup brought down the
popularly elected government with the new administration barely lasting for
five years before being brought down by yet another counter-coup in 1978 led by
communists (Central Intelligence Agency, 2011). The Soviet Union would later
invade the country in 1979 and engage it in a destructive war that saw the
Soviets dominate the country until 1989. This reign was replaced by a weak
administration which would soon come under intense Taliban attacks and gave way
to the Taliban in 1996. The association of Taliban with some of the world’s
most wanted terrorists saw an international movement towards its destruction
with a UN led force bringing to an end the reign of Taliban reintroducing
democracy and setting the country on a path of economic growth (Central
Intelligence Agency, 2011). Despite these measures, Afghanistan continues to be
poorly developed with an economy that is largely dependent on natural resources
with a GDP of about $ 27 billion which barely caters for the needs of the
population (US Department of State, 2011). This prompts the country to be
highly dependent on foreign aid and aid for trade to enable the country to
trigger greater gains in their economy.
The Afghanistan economy is mainly
dependent on agriculture with a majority (85%) of its population largely
dependent on the sector for its livelihood (Thomas, 2011). This has made the
country quite prone to droughts and adverse changes in climatic conditions
especially in the face of accelerated global warming. As is common with most
undeveloped economies, Afghans mainly rely on natural resources as their main
source of income (Thomas, 2011). This restricted source has great impediments
as far as limitations and growth potential is concerned. As analysts would
hold, an economy is more likely to develop when it is able to diversify away
from natural sources such as agriculture and mining.
The UNDP ranks Afghanistan as one of the
lowest ranked countries as far as Human Development is concerned. Whereas other
bodies may look to the GDP for guidance on poverty levels, the UNDP uses the
Human Development Index as a more reliable measure since it denotes a general
sense of well-being among the members of the population (UNDP, 2011a). The
elements used for generating the Human Development Index include life
expectancy which determines a population’s capacity to live a long and healthy
life; literacy levels; and purchasing power parity which determines the
population’s capacity to have a decent living standard. The index is however
not a comprehensive measure of the well-being of a population since it excludes
such necessary measures as gender imbalance, inequality in income levels, and
the level of respect for human rights and political freedoms (UNDP, 2011a).
However, it may serve as a good indicator of a country’s poverty level as
compared to other countries. The index is generated with 1 as the highest and 0
as the lowest. According to the 2010 HDI ranking, Afghanistan was ranked 155th
out of 169 countries with a HDI index of 0.349: an indication that the country
is actually among the poorest in the world (The Afghanistan Analyst, 2011).
However, this is indicative of an improvement given that the country was ranked
181 out of 182 countries in the 2009 rankings (Rawa News, 2009). The HDI trend
in Afghanistan is as illustrated below:
HDI
Trends since 2005
Source: UNDP, 2011a
Other measures for determining poverty
levels include the multidimensional poverty index which identifies multiple
deprivations in the standards of living, education and health. According to
this index, individuals are classified as poor depending on the number and the
degree of deprivation they experience (Grollier, 2009). According to the latest
human poverty index, Afghanistan ranks among the 10 lowest countries.
The country remains under developed with
the threat posed by the insurgents being the main obstacle to sustainable
growth and development. Afghanistan remains one of the most dangerous countries
to live in with a recent UN report stating that it is one of the most dangerous
countries for a child to be born in (AusAid, 2011). This image problem makes it
difficult for the country to inspire the levels of economic development
necessary to pull its population out of poverty. The country is therefore
forced to depend on foreign aid to meet these ends.
The phenomenon of providing foreign aid
for developing countries is widespread with much of the aid being channelled
towards the financing of the budget. Aid may also be channelled to specific
projects such as education, infrastructure development, poverty reduction
projects and others (Higgins and Prowse, 2010). Aid for trade is more specific
and is channelled towards helping countries to develop trade related skills and
infrastructure (WTO, 2011). This is aimed at putting into effect certain World
Trade Organisation (WTO) agreements which countries are expected to embrace in
order to expand trade. The WTO plays a key role as far as aid for trade is
concerned by encouraging additional aid for trade inflows from donors
(bilateral, regional and multilateral donors) to support trade capacity
building initiatives in developing countries; supporting improvements in the
monitoring and evaluation of the aid; and encouraging greater focus on trade by
having partner countries incorporate them into their mainstream strategies
(WTO, 2011). In view of the fact that trade is a broad subject, aid for trade
is equally varied and not easily defined. In addition to infrastructural
development, technical assistance is also provided and it involves helping
countries with strategy formation, negotiation skills and the implementation of
the agreements arrived at (OECD, 2006). Infrastructural help involves the
building of roads, telecommunication networks and sea ports. The aid for trade
may also extend to cushioning countries from challenges arising from tariff
reductions, declining terms of trade, or even preference erosion.
The latest comprehensive figures as
compiled by OECD relate to the year ended 2009 where Afghanistan was a
recipient of about $1.7 billion. These were distributed across different levels
as follows: economic infrastructure ($ 958 million); trade policy and
regulations ($ 20 million); building productive capacity ($ 733 million); and
trade development marker ($ 124 million) (OECD, 2011).
The sector specific allocations of aid
for trade commitments 2009 according to OECD is as follows:
Sector
|
Proportion
of Total AFT
|
Transport,
storage
|
39.8%
|
Trade
policy and regulations
|
3.6%
|
Energy
generation supply
|
5.3%
|
Business,
other services
|
4.8%
|
Banking
and financial services
|
10.9%
|
Industry
|
1.5%
|
Agriculture,
forestry, and fishing
|
33.4%
|
Minerals
and mining
|
0.7%
|
Communications
|
0.1%
|
Data source: OECD, 2011
Trade policy and regulations refer to a
number of issues which include provision of technical assistance to ensure
clear linkages between the national agenda and trade strategies; provision of
technical assistance to enable countries to adopt to the agreements reached
between them and their trading partners; the provision of administrative and
institutional support for regional trade groups; and help countries arrive at
beneficial deals when engaging in bilateral and multilateral trade negotiations
(USAID, 2011). It may also include the support for trade facilitation.
In relation to trade related
infrastructure, a number of areas are considered. The most commonly focused on
area include the provision of roads, telecommunication networks, and power
supply to all trading groups including the poor ones (Higgins and Prowse, 2010).
This helps increase the accessibility of the populations to products and
services hence raising demand. It also enables the small scale producers the
avenue to avail their products in the market without undue strain thereby
boosting the level of trade in any given economy. The increased trade volumes
also help with revenue generation which respective governments can plough back
into the economy to promote further economic growth. The aid for trade could
also be channelled towards the mitigation of risks associated with an ailing or
an unhealthy labour force (Higgins and Prowse, 2010). The construction of
storage facilities especially when it relates to agriculture has also been
cited as very effective especially in countries dependent on agriculture to
enable them avoid unnecessary losses caused by the price fluctuations which
usually affect the food market (Thomas, 2011).
Productive capacity building is also
pursued through the aid for trade and entails the promotion of a good trading
environment and the support to enable the private sector identify their areas
of comparative advantage and engage in increased production in order to
optimise the opportunities arising (Higgins and Prowse, 2010). Under this
category, the aid focuses on the creation of a healthy trading environment;
supports agricultural diversification into untapped markets; supports primary
producers to engage in value addition in order to reap greater benefits from
trade; provides relevant education in order to boost productivity; and helps
highlight the inequalities with an aim to making trade open to members of both
genders. In Afghanistan, this kind of assistance has largely been experienced
in industry, agriculture, forestry and the mining sectors (USAID, 2011).
Aid for trade can also be channelled
towards trade related adjustments which help support countries that may be
grappling with the effect of reduced revenues as a result of lower tariffs as
proposed by the World Trade Organisation (Higgins and Prowse, 2010). Other
support measures may include social protection measures and the stabilisation
of returns from agricultural products.
The main donors of aid for Trade in
Afghanistan were noted as follows:
Donor
|
Amt ('000) usd
|
United
States of America
|
1,135,781.00
|
United
Kingdom
|
124,541.00
|
World
Bank
|
72,779.00
|
EU
Institutions
|
62,935.00
|
Canada
|
54,621.00
|
Italy
|
34,275.00
|
Data source: OECD, 2011
These top donors contribute over 92% of
the total aid for trade received in Afghanistan (OECD, 2011).
The Australian government has also been
keep to provide foreign aid to the country with its 2011-2012 estimates being
at about $ 121 million and an official development assistance of $ 161 million
(OECD, 2011).
Various other non governmental
organisations are actively involved in various programs in Afghanistan. Many of
them are focussed on improving the welfare of ordinary Afghans through
provision of health assistance, education and literacy promotion programs, and
provision of basic needs such as food. Some of the largest NGOs operating in
Afghanistan include Oxfam, Care International, Mercy Corps, Inter Action, the
Red Cross, the Red Crescent, Doctors Without Borders, and the World Food
Program among others (Cookman and Wadhams, 2010). In as much as the NGOs serve
specific purposes, many of them tend to serve purpose of helping to improve the
welfare of the citizens through poverty alleviation through the provision of
basic amenities. Other NGOs at work in Afghanistan include UN Food and
Agriculture Organisation, Islamic Relief, Food for the Hungry, Actionaid,
Learning for Life, AGEF, International Rescue Committee, American Councils,
Marigold Fund, AfghanMark, Partners in Revitalization and Building, Afghan
Technical Consultants, Afghanistan Independent Human Rights Commission and
Bureau for Reconstruction and Development among others (The Afghanistan
Analyst, 2011). The hundreds of NGOs operating in Afghanistan contribute
significantly to the poverty alleviation agenda in the country and the
achievement of the millennium development goals. In fact, the amount of funds
that have flowed into the country in 2010 is estimated to stand at around $ 500
million which is almost a third of the funds that flowed in through the aid for
trade by bilateral and multilateral donors (The Afghanistan Analyst, 2011).
One of the main objectives for aid for
trade as advanced by the developed countries is the stabilisation of global
trade for a more stable global economy (WTO, 2011). The World Trade
Organisation was formed for the same objective and the institution was quick to
identify disparities in economic development across countries as one of the
impediments for engaging in stable trade internationally (WTO, 2011). This is
why the WTO plays a pivotal role in ensuring that developing countries receive
as much aid for trade as possible. The body provides technical assistance to
countries to help refine their trade strategies and ensure that trade policies
are enshrined in their mainstream country strategies. They also play a pivotal
role in highlighting the type of assistance needed by the different countries
and thereby encourage bilateral and multilateral donors to attend to such
needs. Being key players in global trade, the developed countries who form the
bulk of donors for the programs, view their expenditure in aid for trade to
less developed countries as an investment to ensure sustained trade (Higgins
and Prowse, 2010). This stabilised trade ends up benefitting the donors. In
fact, analysts believe that the donor countries tend to benefit more from the
aid than the beneficiary counties.
Poverty reduction has also been a main
source of concern internationally and has been one of the main points of focus
by the United Nations (UNDP, 2011). Trade has been cited as one of the most
effective tools for reducing these poverty levels and this partly contributes
to the commitment with which donors provide aid for trade. The Aid for Trade is primarily aimed at
helping developing countries to overcome barriers to trade expansion while
ensuring that the poor citizens of such countries have adequate access to the
trade (WTO, 2011). Analysts have in various occasions drawn clear linkages
between trade, economic growth and poverty reduction. Open trade is known to
trigger greater economic development which in turn contributes significantly to
poverty reduction. Indeed some of the most rapidly growing economies in the
world are said to be beneficiaries of more open trade between them and other
countries (Higgins and Prowse, 2010). There is inadequate data on how trade
impacts poverty levels and to what extent it impacts the same. However, general
consensus exists among scholars who hold that countries with a relatively
better developed economy tend to have lower poverty levels among their
citizens.
The effectiveness of aid
Given the significant amounts of money
dedicated to providing aid to developing countries, a fair share of attention
goes towards ensuring that the funds provided actually achieve their intended
purpose. With an increasing demand for accountability and productivity at home,
donor countries have been hard pressed to ensure that the funds spent achieve
the intended results (OECD, 2011a). The effectiveness of aid was amply focussed
upon during the Paris declaration in March 2005 which mainly focused on how to
ensure that the aid funds provided remain effective. The main areas focused on
included the strengthening of cooperation between partner countries as far as
development strategies and operational frameworks are concerned (The Paris
Declaration on Aid Effectiveness, 2011). It also focused on the importance of
ensuring that there is alignment of priorities among aid partners with a focus
on systems and procedures hence helping to strengthen their capacities. The
accountability of the donors and the beneficiary countries was also focused on
with the need to encourage transparency and accountability duly highlighted.
The cooperation between the donor countries was also viewed as useful for
minimising duplications hence making the aid provided more cost effective (The
Paris Declaration on Aid Effectiveness, 2011). As such, donor countries were
encouraged to declare their commitment to the relevant regional groups and UN
affiliates in order to avoid unnecessary duplications of donor roles. The Paris
declaration also resolved to developed similar procedures for financial
management, fiduciary safeguards, procurement and other measures to ease of
reporting and greater accountability (OECD, 2011a).
Some of the weaknesses that were
identified at the conference that needed to be dealt with included the
following: weaknesses in the beneficiary countries rendering such countries
inadequate to deal with the result oriented national development strategies:
failure to provide predictable commitments that would enable the partner
countries to plan their course of action in advance; and insufficient
delegation of authority to officers on the ground hence little chance for
timely interventions whenever necessary (The Paris Declaration on Aid
Effectiveness, 2011). Also cited was the insufficient integration of global
programs and initiatives into beneficiary countries’ development strategies.
Corruption, which happens to be a major challenge in developing countries, was
also cited as a major challenge. Corruption was cited to be responsible for the
erosion of public confidence and a potential impediment for the mobilisation of
resources (The Paris Declaration on Aid Effectiveness, 2011). The donor
countries also resolved to ensure that their aid provision is tailored to the
specific requirements of the beneficiary countries. The assistance would be
integrated into the country specific agendas for the reduction of poverty and
the achievement of development goals (Thomas, 2011). For instance, where the
beneficiary country suffers from having a weak state, significant efforts would
be dedicated towards ensuring good governance practices and the practice of
stronger governance.
The beneficiary countries were on the
other hand required to make a number of commitments which included: to carry
out diagnostic reviews that would provide donor countries with reliable
assessment of systems and procedures; undertake reforms based on such
assessments in a manner that ensures that that their systems satisfy the
transparency and accountability thresholds; and undertake reforms that would
help bring about sustainable capacity development in the countries (The Paris
Declaration on Aid Effectiveness, 2011). This commitment by beneficiary states
is critical in ensuring the effectiveness of the aid funds provided. This is
due to the fact that they are the primary users of such funds and it is their
performance that mainly determines the effectiveness with which such aid can be
put to good use. Poor accountability, corruption and poor institutional
capacity has been the main challenge in ensuring that the beneficiary states
make optimum use of the aid funds (UNDP, 2011).
Afghanistan may be described as a
democracy albeit a rather immature democracy with comparatively less
development of democratic institutions. The country has three organs of
government namely the executive headed by the president, the legislature and
the judiciary. The main institutions of governance in Afghanistan includes: the
presidency, parliament, independent directorate of Local Governance,
independent administrative Reform and Civil Commission, Special Advisory Board
on Appointments, Line ministries, Provincial governor, Provincial
administrative council and others (Cookman and Wadhams, 2010). Governance is
devolved to provinces and to districts with the provincial and district
governors being responsible for the respective levels of government.
The National Assembly is made up of
elected members whose decisions are expected to be a reflection of the will of
the electorate. Strong national assemblies are crucial in ensuring
accountability and transparency is maintained in the conduct of government
functions (Central Intelligence Agency, 2011). However, the Afghanistan
national assembly is weakened by the absence of strong political parties which
would be expected to act as a guide to the actions of the elected members. The
parliamentary checks and balances are further weakened by the fact that a third
of the upper house in the national assembly is nominated by the president with
the remaining two thirds elected by the provincial councils (The Central
Intelligence Agency, 2011). The immense presidential powers in determining the
composition of parliament has merits as well as demerits. To start with, the
influence gives the executive the upper hand in ensuring that their legislative
agenda is passed without unnecessary wastage of time as is common with
democracies where the process of elected members of the national assemblies is
completely detached from the executive (Cookman and Wadhams, 2010). However,
this appointive influence weakens the oversight role of the national assembly
making it difficult to hold the government to account. In fact, numerous claims
of corruption have been levelled at the government with the executive blamed
for embezzling funds and frustrating any efforts to audit the use of funds
allocated to them (Cookman and Wadhams, 2010). This lack of transparency
relates to both the revenue allocations and the foreign aid procured from
Afghanistan’s development partners. Despite the fact that the lower house tends
to be more independent than the upper house, the common practice is that the
members have been prone to compromise making it less effective in holding the
executive to account. This too is as a result of lack of strong political
parties.
The government in Afghanistan also
grapples with the absence of proper structures and inadequate capacity to
attend to projects in a manner that assures the achievement of the goals set
(UNDP, 2011). The constant fighting by Taliban insurgents further worsens the
situation with the few available government workers mainly averse to taking up
assignments in perceived Taliban strongholds. With the strain on the available
police force, it becomes difficult to provide adequate security for their
workers. The country has also been suffering from dilapidated infrastructure
which hinders service delivery for the government. With the sustained threat to
national security, the construction of the infrastructure seems to be
unachievable in the short term (UNDP, 2011). This phenomenon makes it difficult
for the attainment of meaningful aid for trade with many of the privately run
NGOs merely concentrating on initiatives focused on the alleviation of human
suffering.
The Afghanistan’s Millennium Development
Goals were endorsed in 2004 unlike the rest of the countries whose goals were endorsed
in 2000 (UNDP, 2011). This was due to the fact that the country was still
tangled up in intense fighting with the Taliban and could therefore not
participate in the forums. The goals that were later endorsed in 2004 were
earmarked for achievement in 2020 and comprised of 9 key goals. These goals
included the following: eradication of extreme poverty and hunger; achievement
of universal primary education; promotion of gender equality and the
empowerment of women; reduction of child mortality rate; improvement of
maternal health; the combating of prevalent diseases such as HIV/AIDS, TB and Malaria;
ensuring environmental sustainability; development of a goal partnership for
development; and the enhancement of security (UNDP, 2011).
A recent survey among Afghans indicated
that insecurity was their main problem despite their extreme poverty conditions
and ill health (The Word Bank, 2011). In accordance with this view, a lot of
foreign aid has been channelled towards the suppression of the insurgents with
the bulk of the aid funds forming part of the so-called ‘Afghan war’. In
addition to the provision of funds, the United Nations maintains military
personnel in the country to enable the stabilisation of security in the country
(OECD, 2010). In addition, specific steps have been taken to strengthen the
local security organs through training and provision of technical support.
Poverty eradication ranks first on the
list of MDGs. Estimates reveal that about 20% of the rural population suffer
chronic food shortages with a further 18% facing seasonal food shortages (the
World Bank, 2011). Over 85% of the Afghan population is said to be reliant of
agriculture (Thomas, 2011). This places the country at an increased risk with
increasing climatic inconsistencies. However, specific steps have been taken to
stabilise agricultural productivity through increased irrigation and support
for value addition for agricultural products. This is practiced under the
capacity building option of providing aid for trade for the less developed
countries.
Regarding the achievement of literacy,
progress is already been made in pursuance of this goal. The figures of
students in 2003 stood at about 54% which added up to around 2.3 million
students (UNDP, 2011). With the help of foreign aid, the number of students
enrolled in schools has exceeded the 7 million mark, a figure much higher than
at any point in the Afghan history (USAID, 2011). The programs can therefore be
said to be relatively effective.
Similar efforts have been channelled
towards the fight to reduce child mortality and maternal health with numerous
NGOs taking up the challenge by providing health facilities in remote areas and
providing funding for the affected persons to access quality health care (UNDP,
2011a). However, this goal is still largely unachieved with Afghanistan
continuing to bear among the highest rates of child mortality in the world. The
problem of attaining sustainable environment is compounded by the fact that the
majority of the rural poor tend to rely on firewood for their energy needs.
This places the already scarce Afghan vegetation and forests at risk (Thomas,
2011). The government is hard pressed to provide these rural inhabitants with
alternatives that would assure environmental sustainability. The problem also
relates to lack of adequate sanitation facilities and lack of clean drinking water
in the urban areas (UNDP, 2011c). Significant attention has been rendered to
the sanitation in urban areas especially by the privately run NGOs and agencies
such as the USAID and AusAID (AusAID, 2011). However, the focus on the rural
areas seems to be lacking and requires considerable attention.
Some of the tools commonly used for
poverty reduction can be categorised as the use of debt relief, good
governance, trade related solutions and distributional issues as well as the
use of aid. As a general rule, aid tends to be less effective unless it is
accompanied by some of the measures such as good governance and trade related
solutions. Aid tends to become a burden to the population especially where such
aid comes in form of short term or long term loans (Higgins and Prowse, 2010).
This ends up adding a burden to the very people in need of aid. Debt relief may
therefore be considered to be a form of aid where the budgetary allocations for
servicing debt are diverted back to the needy individuals. However, this is
only possible in the face of good governance. Good governance ensures that
services are distributed with utmost efficiency and effectiveness and that the funds
are properly allocated to deserving persons (OECD, 2006). Good governance
denotes efficiency, effectiveness, accountability, and transparency. Good
governance also requires that a country has infrastructural capacity to
decentralise its services for ease of access to a majority of their citizens. In
the absence of good governance, the providers of aid tend to be reluctant to
avail their funds hence slowing down the process of poverty reduction. In the
absence of sustainable programs, aid becomes largely ineffective (OECD, 2006).
This is the thinking behind the use of aid for trade as an approach to help
with poverty alleviation. Good provision
of aid should be accompanied by good governance and promotion of free trade
especially where such aid is geared towards the building of production capacity
for the recipients of the aid.
Views on Afghans development
priorities and recommendations
The priorities for development for the
Afghanistan government are as outlined in the 9-goal outline as contained in
the millennium development goals. These goals include: eradication of extreme
poverty and hunger; achievement of universal primary education; promotion of
gender equality and the empowerment of women; reduction of child mortality
rate; improvement of maternal health; the combating of prevalent diseases such
as HIV/AIDS, TB and Malaria; ensuring environmental sustainability; development
of a goal partnership for development; and the enhancement of security (UNDP,
2011a).
These goals are rather well balanced and
their achievement is likely to substantially improve the lives of ordinary
Afghans. However, some crucial aspects for attainment of the same seem to be
missing. For instance, poverty alleviation is key but the government needed to
come up with parallel development plans whose attainment would simultaneously
lead to alleviation of poverty levels. The development goals seem to take the
presumption that Afghanistan can only be a consuming state with little chance
that they could join the supply side of the economic equation. The government
should focus on trade as a tool for helping with the alleviation of poverty. It
is a well acknowledged fact that trade leads to rapid economic growth which in
turn helps with the uplifting of the living standards of the population. The
country should embrace the promotion of international trade through the
empowerment of their industries to maximise economies of scale and reap the
benefits of global trade for the good of their citizens.
A closely related development agenda is
the need to strengthen infrastructure for ease of movement of goods and
services and communication. Without proper infrastructure, products made by the
newly empowered public may not make its way to the market. Similarly, cheaper
products from the international markets may not be accessible to the consumers
who may not be able to afford the locally available products which may prove to
be quite expensive.
As observed, the MDGs listed by
Afghanistan only paint a gleam picture of what must be achieved and are lacking
in the necessary aspects required to ensure that such goals are achieved in the
time specified.
Aid for Trade is a term that has gained
popularity since the formation of the World Trade Organisation where
international focus shifted towards ensuring free trade was practiced across
national borders. This focus called for freer movement of goods and services
internationally and the move came with certain implications. Freer trade
implied that countries were at the same level of development and this was
contrary to the reality. The WTO therefore came up with proposals for countries
with inadequate trade infrastructure and systems to be provided with aid in
order to bring their systems at par with their more developed counterparts. Aid
for trade not only focuses on infrastructure but also on technical assistance
where developing countries are advised on the best strategies to embrace in
order to ensure that they benefit from the benefits of increased trade.
Afghanistan is ranked as among the
poorest countries in the world and has been largely dependent on foreign aid in
order to achieve its development agenda. With the USA being their largest
donor, the aid provisions have mainly been channelled towards ensuring that the
country is stabilised through the development of relevant governance
structures. The government has already achieved considerable success in
relation to some of the MDGs set with the help of foreign aid. However, the
focus of the policy makers seem to be narrow and in dire need of refinement.
For more theory and case studies on: http://expertresearchers.blogspot.com/
AusAID,
2011. Afghanistan. (Online) Available
at:
http://www.ausaid.gov.au/country/country.cfm?CountryID=27886219&Region=AfricaMiddleEast#challenges
(Accessed 11 October 2011)
Central
Intelligence Agency, 2011. South Asia:
Afghanistan. (Online) Available at: https://www.cia.gov/library/publications/the-world-factbook/geos/af.html
(Accessed 12 October 2011)
Cookman,
C., Wadhams, C., 2010. Governance in
Afghanistan: Looking ahead to what we leave behind. (Online) Available at:
http://www.americanprogress.org/issues/2010/05/pdf/afghangovernance.pdf
(Accessed 13 October 2011)
Grollier,
J., 2009. Aid for Trade. (Online)
Available at:
http://www.cuts-grc.org/pdf/Aid_for_Trade-Profile_of_the_SAARC.pdf (Accessed 12
October 2011)
Higgins,
K., Prowse, S., 2010. Trade, Growth and
Poverty: making aid for trade work for inclusive growth and poverty reduction.
(Online) Available at: http://www.odi.org.uk/resources/download/4714.pdf
(Accessed 13 October 2011)
OECD,
2006. Aid for Trade: Making it Effective.
(Online) Available at: http://www.oecd.org/dataoecd/23/15/37438309.pdf
(Accessed 13 October 2011)
OECD,
2010. Competitiveness and Private Sector
Development: Central Asia. (Online) Available at:
http://www.oecd.org/dataoecd/20/10/46973993.pdf (Accessed 13 October 2011)
OECD,
2011. Aid for Trade at a Glance 2011:
Afghanistan. (Online) Available at:
http://www.oecd.org/dataoecd/57/8/48321326.pdf (Accessed 12 October 2011)
OECD,
2011a. Promoting effective aid for trade.
(Online) Available at: http://www.oecd.org/document/52/0,3746,en_2649_34665_39145396_1_1_1_1,00.html
(Accessed 12 October 2011)
Rawa
News, 2009. Factsheet of Human
Development Report 2009: Afghanistan Ranked 181 out of 182 countries. (Online)
Available at:
http://www.rawa.org/temp/runews/2009/10/05/human-development-report-2009-factsheet-afghanistan-ranked-181-out-of-182-countries.html
(Accessed 12 October 2011)
The
Afghanistan Analyst, 2011. Non-Governmental
and international humanitarian organisations operating in Afghanistan. (Online)
Available at: http://afghanistan-analyst.org/ngo.aspx (Accessed 13 October
2011)
The
Paris Declaration on Aid Effectiveness, 2011. The Paris declaration on Aid Effectiveness and the Accra Agenda for
Action. (Online) Available at:
http://www.oecd.org/dataoecd/11/41/34428351.pdf (Accessed 13 October 2011)
The
World Bank, 2011. Poverty in Afghanistan.
(Online) Available at:
http://web.worldbank.org/WBSITE/EXTERNAL/COUNTRIES/SOUTHASIAEXT/EXTSAREGTOPPOVRED/0,,contentMDK:20574056~menuPK:493447~pagePK:34004173~piPK:34003707~theSitePK:493441,00.html
(Accessed 13 October 2011)
Thomas,
D., 2011. Afghanistan Human Development
Report 2011. (Online) Available at:
http://www.cphd.af/Downloads/Background%20Papers/Poverty%20and%20Irrigation.pdf
(Accessed 12 October 2011)
UNDP,
2011. Millennium Development Goals in
Afghanistan. (Online) Available at: http://www.undp.org.af/MDGs/index.htm
(Accessed 13 October 2011)
UNDP,
2011a. Human Development Reports:
Composite Indices- HDI and Beyond. (Online) Available at:
http://hdr.undp.org/en/statistics/indices/ (Accessed 13 October 2011)
UNDP,
2011c. Water Governance Facility:
Afghanistan. (Online) Available at:
http://www.watergovernance.org/afghanistan (Accessed 12 October 2011)
US
Department of State, 2011. Background
Note: Afghanistan. (Online) Available at: http://www.state.gov/r/pa/ei/bgn/5380.htm
(Accessed 13 October 2011)
USAID,
2011. Afghanistan. (Online) Available
at: http://www.usaid.gov/locations/asia/countries/afghanistan/ (Accessed 11
October 2011)
WTO,
2011. Aid for Trade. (Online)
Available at: http://www.wto.org/english/tratop_e/devel_e/a4t_e/aid4trade_e.htm
(Accessed 13 October 2011)
No comments:
Post a Comment